Learning is often misunderstood: Not easy repetitions, but effortful learning, leads to deeper and more durable knowledge retention.

Many widely accepted approaches to learning are actually not as effective as people think. Techniques like highlighting text and rereading may feel useful but don't contribute much to long-term retention of knowledge. Research shows that repetition and practicing the same thing over and over again aren't as helpful as we believe. Instead, more challenging methods, like self-testing and retrieval practice, are more effective for truly understanding and remembering information. There's a false sense of mastery that comes from the feeling of fluency when you simply go over material multiple times. This can be deceiving and lead you to think you've learned something when you actually haven't. To get a more accurate gauge of what you know and don't know, regular self-quizzing is recommended. This practice of self-testing helps to recalibrate your understanding, and it aligns with what Second Lieutenant Kiley Hunkler described as "shooting an azimuth," a navigation term for rechecking and adjusting your direction. More effective learning strategies include interleaving different but related topics or skills and attempting to solve problems before actually being taught the solutions. This not only improves retention but also aids in applying the knowledge practically. It's important to continue revisiting and updating what you've learned, as the learning process is iterative. In essence, the takeaway is to shift from intuitive but ineffective learning methods to those that are backed by empirical research. These might feel more challenging but are proven to be more effective for both understanding and retaining knowledge.

Retrieval practice, the act of actively recalling information, not only identifies knowledge gaps but also strengthens memory connections, thereby enhancing knowledge retention and understanding.

Retrieval practice plays a crucial role in maintaining our knowledge accessible when we need it. This process of actively recalling information has two significant benefits. Firstly, it helps identify what you know and don't know, guiding further study to improve weak areas. Secondly, recalling what you've learned causes your brain to reconsolidate the memory, strengthening its connections to what you already know and making it easier for you to recall in the future. In essence, retrieval—testing—interrupts forgetting. This was demonstrated in an eighth-grade science class in Columbia, Illinois, where researchers arranged for part of the course material to be the subject of low-stakes quizzing at three points in the semester. Another part of the material was never quizzed but was studied three times in review. The results showed that retrieval practice significantly improved retention of the material. Another example is the "learning paragraphs" assigned by Mary Pat Wenderoth in her human physiology course. Students were asked to generate their own written summaries of key ideas, restating concepts in their own words and elaborating on the concepts by generating examples of them. This exercise engaged various cognitive activities like retrieval, elaboration, and generation, which have been well established through empirical studies as beneficial for learning. In brief, the act of retrieving learning from memory is a powerful tool for enhancing knowledge retention and understanding. It not only helps identify areas of weakness for further study but also strengthens memory connections, making it easier to recall information in the future.

Mix it up: Varied, spaced, and interleaved practice is superior over traditional repetitive practice.

The idea that practicing the same thing over and over in a concentrated period will make you better at it is deeply ingrained in our minds. While it's true that this focused repetition gives us a quick sense of improvement, scientists label this "momentary strength" and note that it's different from the lasting power of a deeply ingrained habit or skill. Instead of cramming, experts recommend approaches like spacing, interleaving, and variation to make learning stick. Spacing means breaking up your practice or study sessions over time. This is beneficial because it allows our brains to consolidate memories and even lets a bit of forgetting happen. Surprisingly, a little forgetting is good because it forces you to work harder to recall what you've learned, strengthening your memory. Interleaving involves mixing up different topics or subjects in order to improve your overall learning. It’s like going to a hockey class and practicing skating, puck handling, and shooting all in one session, rather than perfecting just one skill. Even if you don't feel like you're getting the hang of it immediately, interleaving actually makes you better at distinguishing between different kinds of problems later on and applying the appropriate solutions. Variation is similar but focuses on changing the conditions under which you practice a specific skill. If you only practice a skill in the same context, you're not giving your learning the variety it needs to become robust and adaptable. Avoid the "familiarity trap," where you think you know something so well that you no longer need to practice it. This can set you back, as you'll likely cut corners in your own self-assessments. Taking quizzes, for example, can serve as a great form of what's known as 'retrieval practice', helping you truly assess what you've learned. Moreover, reflection on your experiences is a form of practice too. It’s about mentally revisiting what happened, what you did, and what you could do differently next time. This not only enhances memory but also adds layers of understanding, improving your future performance. Overall, the more you mix up your learning and make your brain work, the stronger and more durable your skills become.

Don’t shy away from the hard work of learning, embrace the challenges and make a deliberate effort to recall and apply what you've learned.

Learning is not just about absorbing information; it's a complex process that involves encoding new information, consolidating it into long-term memory, and retrieving it when needed. A key concept here is that embracing difficulties actually enhances learning. When you challenge yourself to retrieve information, especially after some time has passed and the details are not as fresh in your mind, you strengthen those memory connections. This kind of "effortful retrieval" not only boosts the memory but also updates it with new information. For example, if you’re learning to drive, recalling how to parallel park after a few days will take some mental effort. This effort not only reinforces your memory of how to parallel park but also makes it easier to add new skills or understandings to that base knowledge. The more you work at recalling this information, the more integrated it becomes in your mental models. These are frameworks that help you apply a whole set of interrelated ideas or skills in new contexts—like using your understanding of speed, space, and road rules to navigate a busy freeway. Also, mixing up the conditions under which you practice, or interleaving your practice with other types of learning, enriches your ability to apply what you’ve learned in different situations. Think about it this way: If you only practice hitting a baseball in perfect weather conditions, you won’t be prepared to hit a curveball in the wind. Varying your practice prepares you for all sorts of real-world conditions. Moreover, attempting to solve problems on your own before seeking the answer boosts your retention of that learning, even if you get it wrong initially. The key is to have corrective feedback to guide you toward the correct answer eventually. So, in summary, don’t shy away from the hard work of learning. Embrace the challenges and make a deliberate effort to recall and apply what you've learned. This not only solidifies what you know but also prepares you to use it in all kinds of future scenarios.

Regular self-quizzing, frequent testing, and accurate self-assessment are crucial tools to avoid illusions of knowing and enhance effective learning.

Most of us are often misguided about our own learning, relying on intuition and faith rather than empirical research. People often overestimate their own abilities and competence. Research on the "Dunning-Kruger effect" shows that incompetent individuals lack the skills to accurately judge their performance. They fail to recognize the mismatch between their ability and what is required. To avoid illusion of knowing, external feedback is essential. Testing yourself through retrieval practice reveals precisely what knowledge is solid versus what only feels familiar. Comparing your performance to competent peers provides perspective. Instruction paired with corrective feedback focuses effort on weaknesses. Tools like simulation training create realistic challenges to assess mastery. Debriefing with more experienced mentors helps calibrate your skills. Admitting mistakes allows you to learn from real-world experience. Overall, relying solely on your subjective judgments of what you know risks confidence that outpaces competence. Objective external feedback gives an accurate picture of where you truly stand. Rather than complacency, continuously challenging yourself with new tests reveals the boundary between what you have mastered and what requires more work. Just as pilots check their instruments to avoid flying blind, ongoing knowledge checks are essential to avoid illusions and ensure you can perform when it matters. Feedback and humility in the face of error keep you on the path of growth.

Scientific evidence does not support the idea that matching teaching methods to individual learning styles enhances learning; instead, factors like motivation, support, and compensating skills play a crucial role.

While it's common to believe that individuals have specific learning styles and that matching teaching methods to these styles enhances learning, this notion is not supported by scientific evidence. A team of cognitive psychologists, conducted a review in 2008 to investigate this claim. They concluded that there's no credible evidence to support the idea that learning is improved when teaching methods align with individual learning styles. However, it's important to note that there are other factors that significantly impact how people learn. For instance, language fluency and reading ability are crucial for learning. Moreover, individuals have a variety of resources such as aptitudes, prior knowledge, intelligence, interests, and a sense of personal empowerment that shape how they learn and overcome their shortcomings. The story of Bruce, a successful baseball manager, illustrates this point. Despite having dyslexia, Bruce was able to thrive due to his high motivation, focused and sustained personal support, and compensating skills. This example shows that while learning styles may not significantly impact learning, other factors such as motivation, support, and compensating skills can play a crucial role in learning success. In conclusion, while everyone has learning preferences, these preferences do not necessarily determine the best way to learn. Instead, it's more beneficial to focus on other factors that significantly impact learning.

Increasing your abilities hinges not on natural talent or IQ, but on discipline, grit, a growth mindset, expert-like practice, memory cues, and the belief in the malleability of intelligence.

Increasing your abilities is largely within your control, and it's not just about natural talent or IQ. It's about discipline, grit, and a growth mindset. This is supported by the studies of psychologist Carol Dweck, who found that the belief that your intellectual ability is not fixed but can be developed has a significant impact on learning and performance. One example of this is a workshop Dweck ran for low-performing seventh graders, teaching them about the brain and effective study techniques. Half the students were taught that intelligence is malleable and can be developed through hard work, while the other half were not. The students who were taught about the malleability of intelligence showed a significant improvement in their grades. Another key to increasing your abilities is practicing like an expert. Expert performance does not usually rise out of genetic predisposition, but rather from deliberate practice. This involves striving to surpass your current level of ability, which often results in setbacks. However, these setbacks provide the essential information needed to adjust strategies and achieve mastery. Finally, constructing memory cues can also help increase your abilities. This is illustrated by the story of Mark Twain, who used a series of crude pencil sketches to outline his speeches. The sketches served as memory cues, helping him remember the different phases of his remarks. In conclusion, increasing your abilities is not just about natural talent or IQ. It's about discipline, grit, and a growth mindset. It's about practicing like an expert and constructing memory cues. And most importantly, it's about believing that you have the power to shape your own abilities.

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Make It Stick - Book Summary (2024)

Peter C. Brown

"Make It Stick" presents the science of successful learning, emphasizing that effective learning involves actively engaging with material, making connections with prior knowledge, and frequently recalling information to strengthen memory. It also highlights that struggle and effort in learning lead to deeper understanding and long-term retention.

Key Ideas

This work is a guide to effective learning and memory retention. It emphasizes that the responsibility for learning lies with the individual, and that teachers and coaches can enhance their effectiveness by incorporating these principles into their teaching methods. It's not about reforming education policy or the school system, but about what individuals can do right now to improve their learning. The strategies discussed have been applied by college professors to narrow the achievement gap in sciences, with promising results. The book is intended for students, teachers, and all readers who prioritize effective learning. It underscores that mastering the ability to learn is crucial for success in any field. The book refrains from being overly prescriptive, instead presenting empirical research and examples for readers to draw their own conclusions. However, it does offer practical advice for students, lifelong learners, teachers, and trainers. The principles remain consistent across these groups, but the application may vary depending on the setting, life stage, and learning materials.

"Make It Stick" by Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger III, and Mark A. McDaniel, presents a new understanding of how we learn and remember. The authors argue that learning is not about being able to remember information for a test, but about acquiring knowledge that can be used in different contexts over time. They debunk common learning myths and provide practical strategies for effective learning.

10 Actions to Implement the Learnings:

Practice retrieval: Regularly test yourself on the information you've learned. This strengthens your memory and ability to recall information.
Interleave your study: Instead of focusing on one topic at a time, mix up your study subjects. This helps to improve your ability to differentiate between concepts.
Space out your study sessions: Avoid cramming. Spacing out your study sessions over time helps to reinforce your memory.
Elaborate on the material: Explain the concepts in your own words and relate them to what you already know. This helps to deepen your understanding.
Use concrete examples: Apply abstract concepts to real-world situations. This helps to make the material more relatable and easier to understand.
Embrace difficulties: Struggling with a problem can lead to a deeper understanding of the material. Don't be discouraged by challenges.
Reflect on your learning: Regularly review what you've learned and how you've learned it. This helps to reinforce the material and improve your learning strategies.
Avoid passive learning: Don't just read or watch. Engage with the material by taking notes, discussing, or teaching it to others.
Understand the underlying principles: Break down complex ideas into their component parts. This helps to build a deeper understanding.
Strive for mastery: Always aim to improve your understanding and skills. Learning is a continuous process.